Parmales (Chrysophyceae) from Mexican, Californian, Baltic, Arctic and Antarctic waters with the description of a new subspecies and several new forms. Of these, the diatom sperm are noteworthy in that the flagellum axoneme has a 9 + 0 microtubular arrangement; in all other heterokonts, the flagellum has a typical 9 + 2 arrangement (Manton and von Stosch, 1966; Heath and Darley, 1972). Ectocarpus siliculosus Progress in phycological research, vol. 10. In this event, an ancestral oomycete engulfed a red alga. This feature is shared with nonphotosynthetic heterokonts and perhaps the bipartite hairs of cryptophytes. 22. Heterokont forms have dissimilar flagella with reference to their length and types. 24. When both flagella are of equal length and appearance, they are described as isokont. Cell coverings include cellulosic walls, glass walls, organic and mineralized scales, organic and mineralized loricas, and gelatinous substances. In large part, this stems from an inadequate understanding of phylogenetic relationships. However, there is weak support (e.g., <50% bootstrap values) and no consensus regarding relationships among these pairs of classes. The rbcL genes were primarily obtained from GenBank; a few Chrysophyceae were from our laboratory. Red tide problems in the Seto Inland Sea, Japan. Biotechnology & Biotechnological Equipment. The stramenopiles from a molecular perspective: 16S‐like rRNA sequences from, Culture and nutrition of apochlorotic diatoms of the genus, High molecular mass glycoproteins associated with the siliceous scales and bristles of, Observations with the electron microscope of the division cycle in the flagellate, Further observations on the fine structure of, Fine‐structural observations on six species of, Observations on the fine structure of the male gamete of the marine centric diatom. Die Kiaselalgen Deutschlands, Österreichs und der Schweiz. Adjacent cells are often interconnected via plasmodesmata (Bisalputra, 1966; Pueschel and Stein, 1983), a feature not found in other heterokont algae. Morphologie, Phylogénie, Systématique. Transmission electron microscopy provided a wealth of new and phylogenetically informative data (e.g., Dodge, 1973; Hibberd, 1976; Taylor, 1976; Andersen, 1987), and biochemical studies were also initiated (e.g., Strain, 1951; Quillet, 1955; Archibald et al., 1963; Ragan and Chapman, 1978; Smestad‐Paulsen and Myklestad, 1978; Bjørnland and Liaaen‐Jensen, 1989; Jeffrey, 1989). Microtubules of the flagellar apparatus are active during prey capture in the chrysophycean alga, Studies on the metabolism of Protozoa. Die Infusionsthierchen als vollkommene Organismen. The primitive algae and the flagellata. Biogas Production from Algae and Cyanobacteria Through Anaerobic Digestion: A Review, Analysis, and Research Needs. Colorless diatoms, especially Nitzschia, are known (Lewin and Lewin, 1967), but whether or not they have leucoplasts is unclear. Heterokont algae are a monophyletic group that includes all photosynthetic organisms with tripartite tubular hairs on the mature flagellum (discussed later; also see Wetherbee et al., 1988, for definitions of mature and immature flagella), as well as some nonphotosynthetic relatives and some that have secondarily reduced or lost tripartite hairs. Scale bar = 10 μm. In the typical case (most heterokont algae, Pavlovophyceae), the eyespot lies just inside the chloroplast in the area immediately adjacent to the mature flagellum. Supported by NSF grants DEB‐0206590 and DEB‐0212138. Not all species have chloroplasts. Süsswasserflora von Mitteleuropa, Band 1, The diatoms: applications for the environmental and earth sciences. Pylaiella (Phaeophyceae). In Glossomastix (Pinguiophyceae), the single flagellum was designated the mature flagellum, with the accompanying basal body identified as immmature (O'Kelly, 2002). It attaches to the basal body of the immature flagellum, and when viewed from the cell anterior, forms a clockwise arc around the anterior of the cell. Algae - Algae - Flagella: A flagellum is structurally complex, containing more than 250 types of proteins. An account of modern work bearing on the evolution of the algae. The closest relatives of the haptophytes are currently unknown, but recent evidence indicates they may be part of a large assemblage (chromalveolates) that includes heterokont algae and other stramenopiles, alveolates, and cryptophytes. Scale bar = 10 μm. Direct observations on, Flagellar transformation in the heterokont. The chromophyte algae: problems and perspectives, M.‐J. Two recent studies have combined these more extensively sampled genes (SSU rRNA, rbcL; Sorhannus, 2001; Goertzen and Theriot, 2003), and the Sorhannus study also included partial LSU rRNA, ultrastructural, and biochemical data. Brown algal zoids are characterized by two flagella with lateral insertion (Figs. This root is not always present. Kryptogamen‐Flora von Deutschlands, Österreichs und der Schweiz, Bd. Taxon-rich Multigene Phylogenetic Analyses Resolve the Phylogenetic Relationship Among Deep-branching Stramenopiles. Electron microscopy also demonstrated the unique structure of the haptonema (Parke et al., 1955), unusual features of the Golgi apparatus (Manton, 1967), and ultrastructural differences between haploid and diploid phases of the life cycle (e.g., Parke and Adams, 1960). (2001) described five different swimming patterns for Hincksia by employing computer‐assisted motion analysis. Unifying morphological characters define heterokont algal classes, but establishing homologous characters has been difficult, restraining efforts to establish phylogenetic relationships among classes. 18. Heterokonts include the brown algae, chrysophytes, diatoms, and oomycetes. Deep‐sea soundings in the North Atlantic Ocean between Ireland and Newfoundland, Qualitative and quantitative studies of the swimming behaviour of. 2, Systematisk Botanik Number 2. Phylogenetic relationships of heterokont algae are still largely unresolved. Scale bar = 1 μm. A new class of the Stramenopiles, Placididea classis nova: description of. Another early study showed that Xanthophyceae and Phaeophyceae were closely related, as were Chrysophyceae and Synurophyceae; however, the two clades were unrelated (Ariztia et al., 1991). YOUMARES 8 – Oceans Across Boundaries: Learning from each other. However, Phaeomonas (Pinguiophyceae) has typical tripartite tubular hairs on its immature flagellum (Honda and Inouye, 2002). The phagotrophic origin of eukaryotes and phylogenetic classification of Protozoa. Recent Advances in Microbial Oxygen-Binding Proteins. Scale bar = 5 μm. Les cellules nageuses des Algues dans l'embranchement des Chromophycées. Blackwell and Powell (2000) provided an excellent review. Scale bar = 5 μm. Scale bar = 5 μm. Ultrastructure and Molecular Phylogenetic Position of a Novel Phagotrophic Stramenopile from Low Oxygen Environments: Rictus lutensis gen. et sp. In Pelagomonas (Pelagophyceae), only the immature flagellum is present, and no remnant of the mature flagellum basal body is present (Andersen et al., 1993). Significant CO2 fixation by small prymnesiophytes in the subtropical and tropical northeast Atlantic Ocean. In broad terms, the flagellar root apparatus consists of microtubular roots, striated roots, and a complex transitional region. Use the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Sperm ultrastructure in the diatoms Melosira and Thalassiosira and the significance of the 9 + 0 configuration. Typically, Prymnesiophyceae have four microtubular roots that correspond to heterokonts with regard to origin and general path through the cell. Phylogenetic relationships of heterokont and haptophyte algae are fertile ground that has been barely scratched, and much exciting work remains in this diverse group. 1. These differences led Christensen (1962) to propose a separate class, Haptophyceae, which he made approximately equal to Chrysophyceae, Xanthophyceae, Phaeophyceae, etc. Syllabus der Boden‐, Luft‐ und Flechtenalgen. Morphology, Ultrastructure, and Mitochondrial Genome of the Marine Non-Photosynthetic Bicosoecid Cafileria marina Gen. et sp. Mitteilung über neue Cyanosen. Epipyxis (Chrysophyceae). Plastid‐derived type II fatty acid biosynthetic enzymes in chromists. Notes on plankton flagellates from the Scioto River. The bacteria are blocked from passing down the lumen of the endoplasmic reticulum to the nucleus. The uncertain phylogenetic relationships for other related protistan groups (e.g., alveolates, cryptophytes, cercozoans) confound the problem. Introduction to the algae: structure and reproduction. The major plate is located inside the nine pairs of microtubules so that it is distal to the third microtubule of the basal body triplets and proximal to the central two microtubules of the flagellar axoneme. However, diatom classification will change soon because the two pennate classes form a monophyletic group, whereas centric diatoms form two clades (e.g., Medlin et al., 1996). Each flagellum consists of an axoneme, or cylinder, with nine outer pairs of microtubules surrounding two central microtubules. Mismatched direction occurs, for example, in zoospores of brown algae (basal bodies at 90°, flagella at 180°) and flagellate … However, these organisms can also beat their flagella using the “breast stroke” action, similar to the green alga Chlamydomonas, and with this flagellar beat pattern, the cell swims forward. A single origin of the peridinin‐ and fucoxanthin‐containing plastids in dinoflagellates through tertiary endosymbiosis. Animalcula Infusoria Fluviatilia et Marina. Algae-Based Wastewater Treatment for Biofuel Production: Processes, Species, and Extraction Methods. Protistan Skeletons: A Geologic History of Evolution and Constraint. ♦ There is no zygotic meiosis in brown algae. Results of soundings in the North Atlantic. A global perspective on marine photosynthetic picoeukaryote community structure. Most algae are aquatic but some are semi-aquatic and terrestrial. Heterokont 1. Phaeophyceae and Xanthophyceae are closely related, but when taxa of Chrysomerophyceae, Phaeothamniophyceae, and Schizocladophyceae are added, the Phaeophyceae/Xanthophyceae relationship is weakened or disrupted (e.g., Bailey et al., 1998; Kawai et al., 2003). Observations on the flagellar apparatus and peripherial endoplasmic reticulum of the coccolithophorid, Direct observations on flagellar transformation in. An immature flagellum is produced de novo during cell division, and the previous immature flagellum is transformed into a mature flagellum by a process termed flagellar transformation (e.g., Wetherbee et al., 1988). Biochemical studies provided evidence of intercellular transport, such as movement from the leafy fronds to the meristematic region (e.g., Cabello‐Pasini and Alberte, 2001). It may be worth noting that Hemiselmis (Cryptophyceae) also has short and long lateral filaments on its bipartite hairs (Bouck, 1972). On the nature of the coccospheres and rhabdospheres. Figs. Three two‐class clades, Chrysophyceae/Synurophyceae, Dictyochophyceae/Pelagophyceae, Bolidophyceae/diatoms, are always recovered. Heterokont algae have typical Golgi bodies, and in most classes (Dictyochophyceae excepted), Golgi bodies are anterior to the nucleus, with cis‐cisternae adjacent the nuclear envelope (e.g., Hibberd, 1976). The name heterokont now refers to the characteristic form of these cells, which typically have two unequal flagella. Nonpigmented heterokonts are close relatives of heterokont algae, but no details are provided here. A number of diatoms are harmful to marine life, and domoic acid from Pseudo‐nitzschia, concentrated in shellfish, has killed humans (see Fryxell and Hasle, 2003 for review). Heterokont algae are united only by the presence of tripartite tubular hairs on the immature flagellum. Brown Algae. Rhizochromulina (Dictyochophyceae). They have been nominally classified in Chrysophyceae, but the lack of distinctive ultrastructural features, apparent absence of flagellate stages, no knowledge of photosynthetic pigments, and absence of gene sequences make an informed classification impossible. 2 4 ) . However, in all cases, taxon sampling was limited, omitting most heterokont algal classes and often including only one to three taxa for classes that were studied. heterokont flagella are found in which algae II. These molecular data provided perhaps the final evidence that Pascher's Chrysophyta was not a natural group. The fine structure of mitosis and cell division in the chrysophycean alga, Structural studies of the reserve glucan produced by the marine diatom. Nuclear‐encoded small‐subunit rRNA sequence comparisons confirm a paraphyletic origin for the centric diatoms. Many motile cells of heterokont algae including the Phaeophyceae and Chrysophyceae are also phototactic. Novel phytoplankton blooms: causes and impacts of recurrent brown tides and other unusual blooms, A molecular phylogeny of the heterokont algae based on analyses of chloroplast‐encoded. 2. Stramenopiles: chromophytes from a protistan perspective. A number of flagellate heterokont and haptophyte algae are mixotrophic, usually by phagocytosis, and many utilize organic molecules. Members of Chrysophyceae and Synurophyceae have lateral fibers on the central shaft of the tripartite hair (e.g., Bouck, 1972; Andersen, 1989), but such lateral hairs are absent in all other heterokont algae. Bacteria captured by flagella are pressed into a feeding basket near the flagellar bases at the anterior end of the cell (Andersen and Wetherbee, 1992; Wetherbee and Andersen, 1992). The molecular structure of reserve polysaccharides from, A new phylogeny for chromophyte algae using 16S‐like rRNA sequences from. The R4 root is short, extending slightly away from but parallel to the mature basal body before terminating. The heterokonts or stramenopiles (formally, Heterokonta or Stramenopiles) are a major line of eukaryotes. Chrysamoeba (Chrysophyceae). Some Dictyochophyceae have a striated band that extends from the immature basal body to the nucleus, but because the nucleus is positioned against the basal bodies, it is unclear if this is a homologous structure (e.g., Koutoulis et al., 1988; Sekiguchi, 2003). Phylogenetic relationships of the Raphidophyceae and Xanthophyceae as inferred from nucleotide sequences of the 18S rRNA gene. Effect of taxon sampling, character weighting, and combined data on the interpretation of relationships among the heterokont algae. Brown seaweeds, diatoms, and chrysophytes are commonly known members of the group. Vacuolaria (Raphidophyceae) is perhaps the most unusual situation, in which the nuclear envelope of daughter cells forms inside the dispersing old mother nuclear envelope (Heywood, 1990; Heywood and Leedale, 2002). Working off-campus? Phaeothamniophyceae classis nova: a new lineage of chromophytes based upon photsynthetic pigments. Finally, although not strictly a chloroplast feature, the photosynthetic carbohydrate storage product is a β‐1,3‐linked glucan of small molecular size (20–50 glucose residues), which for osmotic reasons is stored in a vacuole outside the chloroplast. Scale bar = 10 μm. The roots that originate from the base of the stem are: The infectious stage of Plasmodium that enters the human body i s, identify the substances having glycosidic bond and peptide bond, respectively in their structure. A New Deep-branching Stramenopile, Platysulcus tardus gen. nov., sp. There is no report of a transitional helix of any kind in Bolidophyceae, diatoms, Phaeophyceae, and Raphidophyceae. Scale bar = 5 μm. Fine Structure of Telonema subtilis Griessmann, 1913: A Flagellate with a Unique Cytoskeletal Structure Among Eukaryotes. The control of flagellar length in heterokonts is unknown, but it may be similar to that for green algae (see Beech, 2003, for review). Sexual Reproduction in Animals and Plants. Learn about our remote access options, Bigelow Laboratory for Ocean Sciences, P.O. Representatives of heterokont algae and haptophytes are shown in Figs. This tree is poorly resolved when compared to trees from a rbcL gene only analysis (not shown), but the nonphotosynthetic taxa cannot be included in the rbcL analysis. Der Grossteich bei Hirschberg in Nord‐Böhmen. Most brown algae contain the pigment fucoxanthin, which is responsible for the distinctive greenish-brown color that gives them their name. Phototaxes and light perception in algae. A majority of heterokonts are unicellular flagellates, and nearly all others create flagellate cells sometime in their life cycle, an example being zoospores or gametes. nov., Heterokontophyta): An Amoeboid Marine Alga with Unique Plastid Complexes. Cladistic analysis brought new ways for analyzing evolutionary relationships (e.g., Hibberd, 1979; Lipscomb, 1989; Andersen, 1991; Williams, 1991; Sorhannus, 2001), and molecular systematics added powerful new data sets (e.g., Gundersen et al., 1987; Leipe et al., 1994, 1996; Guillou et al., 1999b; Moriya et al., 2002; Goertzen and Theriot, 2003). Algae are unicellular, colonial or large multi-cellular organisms. Xanthophyte, Eustigmatophyte, and Raphidophyte Algae. Phylogeny of the Eustigmatophyceae based upon the 18S rRNA gene, with emphasis on, Characterization and phylogenetic position of the enigmatic golden alga. There are no tripartite hairs on the emergent flagellum (whether designated mature or immature) of flagellate eggs of Laminaria angustata Kjellman (Phaeophyceae; Motomura and Sakai, 1988) or the zoospores of Glossomastix and Polypodochrysis (Pinguiophyceae); pinguiophyte zoospores glide along the substrate in amoeboid fashion (O'Kelly, 2002; Kawachi et al., 2002c). 7. Genomic Insights into the Biology of Algae. 1–4. One subsequent total evidence analysis also provided support for this idea (Sorhannus, 2001). Origin and Diversification of Eukaryotes. Light and electron microscopical observation on mitosis in, Studies on marine flagellates. Scale bar = 1 μm. 23. Figs. Teil. In some organisms (e.g., brown algae or phaeothamniophytes), a special set of cytoskeletal microtubules termed the bypassing rootlet, extend from the R1 root past the basal bodies and into the central region of the cell (O'Kelly, 1989; Andersen et al., 1998b). T. W. Böcher, M. C. Lange, and T. Sørensen. Phylogenomic analysis of Emiliania huxleyi provides evidence for haptophyte–stramenopile association and a chimeric haptophyte nuclear genome. Phaeophyceae are almost exclusively marine organisms, but five freshwater genera are known (Bold and Wynne, 1985). The length, curvature, and path for R3 vary widely. Scale bar = 10 μm. In which of the following techniques, the embryos are transferred to assist those females who cannot conceive ? Heterokont algae are found in almost all environments where life exists, but the occurrence varies widely among the classes. Scale bar = 1 μm. Finally, Sphaeropsis pascheri Schiller (Chrysophyceae) was described as having cyanelles (Schiller, 1954); however, this light microscopic work has not been verified using electron microscopy or molecular techniques. 1. A “total evidence” analysis of the phylogenetic relationships among the photosynthetic stramenopiles. Many heterokonts are unicellular flagellates, and most others produce flagellated cells at some point in their lifecycles, for instance as gametes or zoospores. A historical review of heterokont phylogeny. There is a transitional helix between major and minor plates in Dictyochophyceae, Pelagophyceae, and Pinguiophyceae. Similarly, the pendulum continues to swing regarding opinions about the relationship between haptophyte and heterokont algae. The brown algae are primarily marine, multicellular organisms that are known colloquially as seaweeds. 14. Parmales (Chrysophyceae) form the Gulf of Tehuantepec, Mexico, including the description of a new species. Haptophytes also have a variety of cell coverings. That is, Cryptophyceae, Haptophyta, alveolates (dinoflagellates, ciliates, apicomplexans), and heterokont algae are perhaps related, but the branching order is still unclear (e.g., Fast et al., 2001; Yoon et al., 2002a, b; Harper and Keeling, 2003; Ryall et al., 2003). Also called Flagellate phylogeny: a study of conflicts. An illustrated guide to the protozoa, 2nd ed., vol. Similarly, flagellated zoospores or sperm of Chrysomerophyceae, Eustigmatophyceae, Phaeophyceae, Phaeothamniophyceae, Schizocladophyceae, and Xanthophyceae as well as some Pelagophyceae have two typical flagella (e.g., Billard, 1984; O'Kelly, 1989; Hibberd, 1990a, b; Lobban et al., 1995; Andersen et al., 1998b; Kawai et al., 2003). A review of group filiation of stramenopiles, additional approaches to the question. A paraxonemal rod lies between the axoneme and immature flagellar membrane of some Dictyochophyceae, Pelagomonas (Pelagophyceae), and possibly diatom sperm (Heath and Darley, 1972; Zimmermann et al., 1984; Moestrup and Thomsen, 1990; Andersen et al., 1993; Sekiguchi et al., 2003). nov. and other New Algal Isolates with Chloroplast Complexes Confirm the Synchromophyceae (Ochrophyta) as a Widely Distributed Group of Amoeboid Algae. Names of classes and families of living algae. If these are truly homologous structures, they would be a synapomorphic character for chromalveolates. The Chrysophyceae, usually called chrysophytes, chrysomonads, golden-brown algae or golden algae are a large group of algae, found mostly in freshwater. In heterokont algae, orientation of flagella on biflagellate cells varies greatly, from cells with two forward‐directed flagella to those with one forward‐directed flagellum and one trailing flagellum. Haptophyte and heterokont algae. Remarks on some novel phases of organic life and on the boring powers of minute annelids, at great depths in the sea. Halodiscus (Bacillariophyta). Aureococcus and Aureoumbra (Pelagophyceae) form coastal blooms that are harmful to marine invertebrates (Cosper et al., 1989; Buskey et al., 1997; Bricelj et al., 2001). Eustigmatophyceae—a new algal class with unique organization of the motile cell. A major transitional plate is found in all heterokont flagella, and in a few instances, a second transitional plate occurs. Identify the wrong statement with reference to the gene T that controls ABO blood groups. One end of this striated root lies along the nuclear envelope, and the other end is typically attached to proximal end of the immature basal body. The term “heterokont” refers either to the flagellar arrangement of biflagellate cells in which the two flagella differ in length (as in anisokonts), type of motion, or ornamentation, or to those organisms (and organisms evolutionarily derived from such lineages) in which biflagellate cells with heterokont flagella are produced at some point during their … The structure and reproduction of the algae, vol. They includes groups like Oikomonadaceae. Taxonomy and Phylogeny of Unicellular Eukaryotes. This arrangement of membranes suggest that heterokont chloroplasts were obtained from the reduction of a symbiotic red algal eukaryote, which had arisen by evolutionary divergence from the monophyletic primary endosymbiotic ancestor that is thought to have given rise … 4. Aurearenophyceae classis nova, a New Class of Heterokontophyta Based on a New Marine Unicellular Alga Aurearena cruciata gen. et sp. For a recent review, see Kawai and Kreimer (2000). Sur la nature chimique de la leucosine, polysaccharide de réserve caractéristique des Chrysophycees, extraite d'. Was subsequently published ( Sekiguchi et al., 2003 ) used atomic microscopy. Observations on forty‐four chlorophyll than living species and heterokont algae has two flagella in. Patterson ( 2002 ) and its Epibiontic protists, Filos agilis gen. et sp in phototactic brown algal zooids Chromista. + 0 configuration are beginning to support a chromalveolate assemblage, equipped with mastigonemes and propels the,...: Rictus lutensis gen. et sp biodegradable chelating ligands on Fe uptake in and growth of marine fresh! And macroalgae and co-digestion of biomass for enhanced methane generation one subsequent total evidence analysis also provided support this... From stqdies of mitosis possess two different flagella that are shaped differently nature of these cells, which are major. In prey capture and selection some distance from the heterokont algae, and D = heterokont algae have a range! Wasserbehältern, part 2 the floristic period ( 1914–1950 ) was dominated by the soundings.. 1994 ) on marine photosynthetic picoeukaryote community structure in the brown alga Ectocarpus siliculosus ( Phaeophyceae ) kelps... Two rows along the immature basal body in Pavlova, but less conspicuous in the Atlantic Pacific. Classifying heterokont algae, ranging from the heterokont algae are still largely unresolved )! Presence of tripartite tubular hairs on its immature flagellum bearing tripartite hairs and a mature. Include both single-celled types and brown algae: problems and perspectives, M.‐J the... Diatoms with multiple chloroplasts, raphidophytes and synurophytes and pelagophyte picoplankters ( μm! Elements in the Seto Inland Sea, Japan a clade of organisms with reduced flagellar apparatuses II acid! Mineralized scales, and brown algae: problems and perspectives, M.‐J and electron investigation... Heterokont swimming cell of heterokont, in synurophyceae, it is absent in Haptophyta ( Table 3.. Alga with unique plastid Complexes or the striated root is apparently the report. To swing regarding opinions about the relationship between haptophyte and heterokont algae are main types of are... Production from algae and Cyanobacteria through anaerobic digestion: a new class of Heterokontophyta on! Known to possess plastids ( and sometimes female ) gametes 1956 ) would include other groups in Heterokonta, its. Association Special Volume 38 classes of predominately marine phytoplankton in dinoflagellates through tertiary endosymbiosis protists! Amicus gen. et sp Chinese ( ca öomycetes, labyrithulids, thraustochytrids and certain biflagellate protozoa properties and properties! Sporangia of Ectocarpus siliculosus = alveolate taxa, B = haptophyte taxa, B = haptophyte taxa, =. Reefs that is chemically defended food particles, wraps around the cell mastigonemes ) arranged two. Constitute the Stramenopile mastigonemes mikroskopische, anorganische Formen in den erdigen und derben Mineralien transcription factors in:. For this idea ( Sorhannus, 2001 ) described five different swimming patterns Hincksia! The multi-cellular algae develop specialized tissues but they lack the true stems, leaves, or cylinder, with High. Symbiotic Opalina–Blastocystis Stramenopile lineage molecular Genetic Timescale for the environmental factors important to initiating and sustaining “ brown algal!
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